Sand composites and methods of using the same to control dust

ABSTRACT

A composite is characterized by particulates of sand wherein at least a portion of the surface of the particulates is coated with a polycationic polymer. The presence of the polycationic polymer on the surface of the particulates reduces the amount of dust generated during handling and use of the sand. The polycationic polymer further reduces the amount of dust generated during transport of the sand as well during manufacture, treatment or processing of the sand.

This application is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/525,571, filed on Oct. 28, 2014, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/784,586, filed on Mar. 4, 2013, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/283,405, filed on Oct. 27, 2011, all of which are herein incorporated by reference.

FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE

The present disclosure relates to composites of sand wherein at least a portion of the surface of the sand is coated with a polyionic polymer. The disclosure further relates to methods of reducing or inhibiting the generation of dust from sand by coating onto at least a portion of the surface of the sand a polyionic polymer.

BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE

Crystalline silica, the basic component of sand, consists of respirable size particles and has been classified as a human lung carcinogen. The seriousness of the health hazards associated with silica exposure is evident from the increasing number of fatalities and disabling illnesses attributable to the ingestion of sand dust. Breathing crystalline silica dust has been known to cause silicosis wherein respirable silica dust enters the lungs and causes formation of scar tissues, thus reducing the ability of the lungs to take in oxygen. There is no cure for silicosis.

The concern of the harmful effects of sand dust is acute in the construction industry. Construction workers use blasting sand as an abrasive to clean metal and concrete surfaces such as during the removal of paint and rust. In addition, construction workers use sand in stucco, plasters, roofing, bricks, grout and paints for color, strength and weatherability. The generation of harmful sand dust is also a concern to workers in other industries. For instance, foundry workers use sand to create cores and molds such as those used in the casting of iron, steel, copper and aluminum products. Manufacturers and formulators use sand as a component of a mixture. Pool maintenance personnel use sand as a filter. Further, sand is used in recreational areas, including golf courses, sport fields and playgrounds, etc.

The release of dust particulates has also presented a concern during treatment operations of wells. For instance, sand is commonly used as a proppant during hydraulic fracturing and as sand control particulates in gravel packing operations. In such operations, sand dust may be released on-the-fly as well as during transport of the proppant to the well site. Recently, the release of dust from fracturing operations has come under close scrutiny as health concerns upon field workers and those within residential areas within the vicinity of on-shore fracturing has risen.

Methods of inhibiting or preventing the generation and formation of dust from sand have been sought.

SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE

The disclosure relates to composites and to methods of using the composites. In an embodiment of the disclosure, a composite is disclosed comprising sand and a polycationic polymer. The polycationic polymer is coated onto at least a portion of the surface of the sand.

In another embodiment of the disclosure, a composite is disclosed comprising sand and a polycationic polymer coated onto at least a portion of the surface of the sand, wherein the polycationic polymer is (i) a polyallylamine hydrochloride homo- or copolymer, salt or quaternized derivative, optionally comprising modifier units; (ii) a polyethyleneimine, salt or quaternized derivative thereof; (iii) a polyvinylamine homo- or copolymer, salt or quaternized derivative thereof optionally comprising modifier units; (iv) a poly[vinylbenzyl-tri(C₁-C₄ alkyl)ammonium salt] or a quaternized derivative thereof; (v) a polymer resulting from a step-wise polymerization (quaternization) reaction between a dihalide and N,N,N′,N′-tetra(C₁-C₄ alkyl)-alkylenediamine; (vi) a poly(vinylpyridine) or poly(vinylpyridinium salt) homo- or copolymer or a quaternized derivative thereof; (vii) a polymer via ring-forming polymerization of N,N-diallyl-N,N-di(C1-C4 alkyl)ammonium halide, comprising units of the formula:

wherein R₁ and R₂ are each independently C₁-C₄ alkyl, in particular methyl, and An⁻ is an anion, for example, a halide anion such as the chloride anion; (viii) a homo- or copolymer of a quaternized di(C₁-C₄ alkyl)aminoethyl acrylate or methacrylate; (ix) a polyaminoamide (PAMAM), a salt or quaternized derivative thereof; or (x) a mixture of any of (i) through (ix).

In another embodiment of the disclosure, a method of reducing the amount of dust generated from sand is provided wherein at least a portion of the surface of the sand is coated with a polycationic polymer.

In another embodiment of the disclosure, a method of reducing the amount of dust generated from sand is provided wherein at least a portion of the surface of the sand is coated with a polycationic polymer selected from the group consisting of (i) a polyallylamine hydrochloride homo- or copolymer, salt or quaternized derivative, optionally comprising modifier units; (ii) a polyethyleneimine, salt or quaternized derivative thereof; (iii) a polyvinylamine homo- or copolymer, salt or quaternized derivative thereof optionally comprising modifier units; (iv) a poly[vinylbenzyl-tri(C₁-C₄ alkyl)ammonium salt] or a quaternized derivative thereof; (v) a polymer resulting from a step-wise polymerization (quaternization) reaction between a dihalide and N,N,N′,N′-tetra(C₁-C₄ alkyl)-alkylenediamine; (vi) a poly(vinylpyridine) or poly(vinylpyridinium salt) homo- or copolymer or a quaternized derivative thereof; (vii) a polymer via ring-forming polymerization of N,N-diallyl-N,N-di(C1-C4 alkyl)ammonium halide, comprising units of the formula:

wherein R₁ and R₂ are each independently C₁-C₄ alkyl, in particular methyl, and An⁻ is an anion, for example, a halide anion such as the chloride anion; (viii) a homo- or copolymer of a quaternized di(C₁-C₄ alkyl)aminoethyl acrylate or methacrylate; (ix) a polyaminoamide (PAMAM), a salt or quaternized derivative thereof; or (x) a mixture of any of (i) through (ix).

In another embodiment, a method of suppressing the generation of dust during the processing or transport of sand is provided wherein a polycationic polymer is coated onto at least a portion of the surface of the sand, wherein the polycationic polymer is (i) a polyallylamine hydrochloride homo- or copolymer, salt or quaternized derivative, optionally comprising modifier units; (ii) a polyethyleneimine, salt or quaternized derivative thereof; (iii) a polyvinylamine homo- or copolymer, salt or quaternized derivative thereof optionally comprising modifier units; (iv) a poly[vinylbenzyl-tri(C₁-C₄ alkyl)ammonium salt] or a quaternized derivative thereof; (v) a polymer resulting from a step-wise polymerization (quaternization) reaction between a dihalide and N,N,N′,N′-tetra(C₁-C₄ alkyl)-alkylenediamine; (vi) a poly(vinylpyridine) or poly(vinylpyridinium salt) homo- or copolymer or a quaternized derivative thereof; (vii) a polymer via ring-forming polymerization of N,N-diallyl-N,N-di(C1-C4 alkyl)ammonium halide, comprising units of the formula:

wherein R₁ and R₂ are each independently C₁-C₄ alkyl, in particular methyl, and An⁻ is an anion, for example, a halide anion such as the chloride anion; (viii) a homo- or copolymer of a quaternized di(C₁-C₄ alkyl)aminoethyl acrylate or methacrylate; (ix) a polyaminoamide (PAMAM), a salt or quaternized derivative thereof; of a mixture of any of (i) through (ix).

In another embodiment of the disclosure, a method of suppressing the generation of dust during the processing or transport from sand is provided wherein a polyallylamine hydrochloride homo- or copolymer is coated onto at least a portion of the surface of the sand.

In another embodiment, a composite is provided comprises particulates having a positive or negative charge onto which is formed one or more polyelectrolyte layers.

In another embodiment, the composite comprises a particulate having coated on at least a portion of the substrate of the particulate a polyionic polymer. The polyionic polymer may be a polycationic polymer such as (i) a polyallylamine hydrochloride homo- or copolymer, salt or quaternized derivative, optionally comprising modifier units; (ii) a polyethyleneimine, salt or quaternized derivative thereof; (iii) a polyvinylamine homo- or copolymer, salt or quaternized derivative thereof optionally comprising modifier units; (iv) a poly[vinylbenzyl-tri(C₁-C₄ alkyl)ammonium salt] or a quaternized derivative thereof; (v) a polymer resulting from a step-wise polymerization (quaternization) reaction between a dihalide and N,N,N′,N′-tetra(C₁-C₄ alkyl)-alkylenediamine; (vi) a poly(vinylpyridine) or poly(vinylpyridinium salt) homo- or copolymer or a quaternized derivative thereof; (vii) a polymer via ring-forming polymerization of N,N-diallyl-N,N-di(C1-C4 alkyl)ammonium halide, comprising units of the formula:

wherein R₁ and R₂ are each independently C₁-C₄ alkyl, in particular methyl, and An⁻ is an anion, for example, a halide anion such as the chloride anion; (viii) a homo- or copolymer of a quaternized di(C₁-C₄ alkyl)aminoethyl acrylate or methacrylate; (ix) a polyaminoamide (PAMAM), a salt or quaternized derivative thereof; or (x) a mixture of any of (i) through (x).

The disclosure further relates to a well treatment fluid containing a well treatment particulate coated with polyelectrolyte layers or the polycationic polymer. In addition, the disclosure relates to a method of making the coated particulates and a method of using the coated particulates in the treatment of a well.

In another aspect, the composite comprises a particulate having a negative charge on its surface; the polycationic polymer being coated onto at least a portion of a particulate bearing the negative charge.

In another embodiment, the particulate is a charged particulate substrate and the polyelectrolyte layers are formed onto the charged particulate substrate. Each of the polyelectrolyte layers is composed of one or more distinct polyionic materials. The polyionic materials of adjacent polyelectrolyte layers are oppositely charged.

The presence of the polyelectrolyte layers or the polycationic polymer on the particulate substrate reduces the amount of dust generated from the particulate substrate. Thus, when the particulate substrate is to be used as a proppant or sand control particulate, the presence of the two or more polyelectrolyte layers or the polycationic polymer onto the proppant or sand control particulates reduces the amount of dust and fines generated from the particulate, during transport of the particulate as well during the manufacture of the particulate.

In another embodiment, the presence of the two or more polyelectrolyte layers or the polycationic polymer reduces the amount of dust generated by the particulate substrate during transport of the particulate as during the manufacture of the particulate.

In an aspect, the particulate substrate is combined with two or more polyelectrolyte multi-layers to form a composite. The multi-layers may be a bilayer, trilayer, etc. For example, a composite may be composed of more than one polyelectrolyte bilayer coated onto the particulate substrate such that a second polyelectrolyte bilayer is coated onto the first polyelectrolyte bilayer (the polyelectrolyte bilayer adjacent to the particulate substrate). A third polyelectrolyte bilayer may be coated onto the second polyelectrolyte bilayer, a fourth polyelectrolyte bilayer may be coated onto the third polyelectrolyte bilayer and so on. Each polyelectrolyte bilayer contains a bottom layer and a top layer which contain polyionic material. The polyionic material of the bottom layer and the polyionic material in the top layer are oppositely charged (counterions). The bottom layer of each polyelectrolyte layer contains polyionic material which has a charge which is opposite to the charge of the polyionic materials in the top layer of the polyelectrolyte bilayer which is adjacent to it. For example, where the particulate substrate is coated with three polyelectrolyte bilayers then the polyionic material of the bottom layer of third polyelectrolyte bilayer has a charge which is opposite to the charge of the polyionic material of the top layer of the second polyelectrolyte bilayer and the polyionic material of the bottom layer of the fourth polyelectrolyte bilayer has a charge which is opposite to the charge of the polyionic material of the top layer of the third polyelectrolyte bilayer.

In another aspect, the particulate substrate contains a charge (for instance, where the particulate surface has been surface modified). In this instant, the polyionic material of the bottom layer of a polyelectrolyte multi-layer coated onto the particulate substrate (a first polyelectrolyte bilayer) has a charge which is the opposite to the charge on the surface of the particulate substrate. The polyionic material of the top layer of the first polyelectrolyte bilayer is a counterion to the polyionic material of the bottom layer of the polyelectrolyte bilayer.

In another aspect, where the polyionic material of the bottom layer of the first polyelectrolyte multi-layer (e.g., a bilayer) is positively charged and the polyionic material of the top layer of the first polyelectrolyte bilayer is negatively charged, a second top layer may be added to the polyelectrolyte bilayer such that the most distant layer from the particulate substrate is positively charged. In an exemplary aspect, where the particulate substrate contains a negative charge, the first polyelectrolyte bilayer may be composed of three layers, each containing a polyionic material wherein such layers consist of the bottom layer (adjacent to the particulate substrate), a first top layer and a second top layer.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

In order to more fully understand the drawings referred to in the detailed description of the present disclosure, a brief description of each drawing is presented, in which:

FIG. 1 illustrates the reduction in fines of uncoated sand particulates and composites of coated sand particulates defined herein after crushing for two minutes at 5550 pounds per square inch (psi).

FIG. 2 illustrates the reduction in produced dust of uncoated sand particulates and composites of coated sand particulates defined herein.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

Illustrative embodiments of the disclosure are described below as they might be employed in the operation and in the treatment of oilfield applications. In the interest of clarity, not all features of an actual implementation are described in this specification. It will of course be appreciated that in the development of any such actual embodiment, numerous implementation-specific decisions must be made to achieve the developers' specific goals, which will vary from one implementation to another. Moreover, it will be appreciated that such a development effort might be complex and time-consuming, but would nevertheless be a routine undertaking for those of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of this disclosure. Further aspects and advantages of the various embodiments of the disclosure will become apparent from consideration of the following description.

The present application is directed to a composite containing a particulate and a polyionic polymer coated onto at least a portion of the surface of the particulate. The particulates onto which the polyionic polymer is coated may have a cross sectional length less than 30 micrometers.

In an embodiment, the particulate is sand, known to generate or form dust. The generation of dust from the particulate not at least partially coated with the polyionic material may be acute during handling or transport of the particulate or during use of the particulate. Application of the polyionic polymer onto at least a portion of the surface of sand is known to suppress or inhibit the generation or formation of dust from the sand particulate. The composite may be used as a replacement for sand in any situation where dusting is a cause of concern.

In an embodiment, the composite may be used in the construction industry and mining industry as well as during a treatment operation of a well. The composite may also be used domestically or for recreational purposes. For example, the composite may be used as a blasting sand as well as construction sand. The composite may be used as a component in stucco, plasters, roofing, bricks, grout, concrete and paints. The composite may further be used as foundry sand. The composite may be used as a component of a mixture and may be of particular benefit to manufacturers and formulators. The composite may also be used as a filter, play sand, cat litter or on golf courses, sport fields, playgrounds, etc. The composite may also be used as proppant or sand control particulate in hydraulic fracturing and gravel packing, respectively.

In addition to sand, the particulate may be deformable or non-deformable and may be non-porous or porous and may be inorganic or organic in nature. In a preferred embodiment, the particulate substrate is non-deformable and, in addition to sand, may be composed of quartz, sand, glass beads, plastics, aluminum pellets, ceramics (including porous ceramics) or a polymeric material.

The particulate substrate may also be a deformable particulate (particulates that yield upon application of a minimum threshold level to point to point stress) include naturally occurring materials, such as (a) chipped, ground or crushed shells of nuts such as walnut, pecan, coconut, almond, ivory nut, brazil nut, etc.; (b) chipped, ground or crushed seed shells (including fruit pits) of seeds of fruits such as plum, olive, peach, cherry, apricot, etc.; (c) chipped, ground or crushed seed shells of other plants such as maize (e.g., corn cobs or corn kernels), etc.; and (d) processed wood materials such as those derived from woods such as oak, hickory, walnut, poplar, mahogany, etc. Deformable particulates may further include such copolymers as polystyrene divinylbenzene terpolymers (including polystyrene/divinyl benzene) and acrylate-based terpolymers, and polymers of furfuryl derivatives, phenol formaldehyde, phenolic epoxy resins, polystyrene, methyl methacrylate, nylon, polycarbonates, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinylchloride, polyacrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, polyurethane, polyethylene terephthalate and mixtures thereof.

Other suitable particulate substrates include those relatively lightweight particulates having an apparent specific gravity (ASG) (API RP 60) less than 2.65. For instance, the relatively lightweight particulates are ultra lightweight (ULW) having an ASG less than or equal to 2.45. Even more preferred are those ULW particulates having an ASG less than or equal to 2.25, preferably less than or equal to 2.0, more preferably less than or equal to 1.75, even more preferably less than or equal to 1.5, most preferably less than or equal to 1.25.

The number average molecular weight of polyionic materials used to render the composite is typically from about 50,000 to about 1,000,000 g, more typically from about 70,000 to about 200,000 g.

In addition to being applied as a single layer to the particulate substrate, two or more layers of polyelectrolyte, each layer comprising polyionic material, may be coated onto the particulate substrate. The polyionic material in each polyelectrolyte layer has a like charge and may be composed of the same ionic material or multiple ionic materials. Thus, for example, a polyelectrolyte layer may contain positive charged polyionic material, the polyionic material being a mixture of positively charged species.

The polyionic material used in the composite refers to a charged polymer that has a plurality of charged groups in a solution, or a mixture of charged polymers each of which has a plurality of charged groups in a solution. Exemplary charged polymers include polyelectrolytes. Polyionic materials include both polycationic (having positive charges) and polyanionic (having negative charges) polymeric materials.

The polyionic materials that may be employed in the present disclosure include polyanionic and polycationic polymers. Examples of suitable polyanionic polymers include, for example, a synthetic polymer, a biopolymer or modified biopolymer comprising carboxy, sulfo, sulfato, phosphono or phosphate groups or a mixture thereof, or a salt thereof.

Examples of synthetic polyanionic polymers are: a linear polyacrylic acid (PAA), a branched polyacrylic acid, a polymethacrylic acid (PMA), a polyacrylic acid or polymethacrylic acid copolymer, a maleic or fumaric acid copolymer, a poly(styrenesulfonic acid) (PSS), a polyamido acid, a carboxy-terminated polymer of a diamine and a di- or polycarboxylic acid, a poly(2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid) (poly-(AMPS)), an alkylene polyphosphate, an alkylene polyphosphonate, a carbohydrate polyphosphate or carbohydrate polyphosphonate (e.g., a teichoic acid). Examples of a copolymer of acrylic or methacrylic acid include a copolymerization product of an acrylic or methacrylic acid with a vinyl monomer including, for example, acrylamide, N,N-dimethyl acrylamide or N-vinylpyrrolidone. Examples of polyanionic biopolymers or modified biopolymers are: hyaluronic acid, glycosaminoglycanes such as heparin or chondroitin sulfate, fucoidan, poly-aspartic acid, poly-glutamic acid, carboxymethyl cellulose, carboxymethyl dextrans, alginates, pectins, gellan, carboxyalkyl chitins, carboxymethyl chitosans, sulfated polysaccharides.

A preferred polyanionic polymer is a linear or branched polyacrylic acid or an acrylic acid copolymer. Another preferred anionic polymer is a linear or branched polyacrylic acid. A branched polyacrylic acid in this context is to be understood as meaning a polyacrylic acid obtainable by polymerizing acrylic acid in the presence of suitable amounts of a di- or polyvinyl compound.

The most preferred polyanionic polymer is poly(sodium styrene sulfonate).

A suitable polycationic polymer is, for example, a synthetic polymer, biopolymer or modified biopolymer comprising primary, secondary, or tertiary amines or quaternary ammonium groups or a suitable salt thereof, for example a hydrohalide such as a hydrochloride thereof, in the backbone or as substituents. Polycationic polymers comprising primary or secondary amino groups or a salt thereof are preferred.

Examples of synthetic polycationic polymers are:

(i) a polyallylamine hydrochloride (PAH) homo- or copolymer, optionally comprising modifier units;

(ii) a polyethyleneimine (PEI);

(iii) a polyvinylamine homo- or copolymer, optionally comprising modifier units;

(iv) a poly[vinylbenzyl-tri(C₁-C₄ alkyl)ammonium salt], for example poly(vinylbenzyl-trimethylammonium chloride);

(v) a polymer resulting from a step-wise polymerization (quaternization) reaction between a dihalide and N,N,N′,N′-tetra(C₁-C₄ alkyl)-alkylenediamine, for example a polymer from (a) propylene-1,3-dichloride or -dibromide or o-, m-, or p-xylylene dichloride or dibromide and (b) N,N,N′,N′-tetramethyl-1,4-tetramethylenediamine;

(vi) a poly(vinylpyridine) or poly(vinylpyridinium salt) homo- or copolymer;

(vii) a polymer via ring-forming polymerization of N,N-diallyl-N,N-di(C1-C4 alkyl)ammonium halide, comprising units of the formula:

wherein R₁ and R₂ are each independently C₁-C₄ alkyl, in particular methyl, and An⁻ is an anion, for example, a halide anion such as the chloride anion;

(viii) a homo- or copolymer of a quaternized di(C₁-C₄ alkyl)aminoethyl acrylate or methacrylate, for example a poly[2-hydroxy-3-methacryloylpropyltri(C₁-C₂ alkyl)ammonium salt] homopolymer, such as poly(2-hydroxy-3-methacryloylpropyltrimethylammonium chloride), or a quaternized poly(2-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate or a quaternized poly(vinylpyrrolidone-co-2-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate); or

(ix) a polyaminoamide (PAMAM), for example a linear PAMAM or a PAMAM dendrimer.

The above mentioned polymers comprise in each case the free amine, a suitable salt thereof, as well as any quaternized form, if not specified otherwise.

The most preferred polycationic polymer is poly(diallydimethyl)amine hydrochloride) of the formula:

wherein n is from about 300 to about 6,300.

Suitable comonomers optionally incorporated in the polymers according to (i), (iii), (vi) or (viii) above are, for example, hydrophilic monomers such as acrylamide, methacrylamide, N,N-dimethyl acrylamide, N-vinylpyrrolidone and the like.

Suitable modifier units of the polyallylamine (i) are known and comprise, for example, units of formula:

wherein X is C₁-C₆ alkyl, which is substituted by two or more of the same or different substituents selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, C₁-C₅ alkanoyloxy, and C₁-C₅ alkylaminocarbonyloxy.

Preferred substituents of the alkyl radical X are hydroxy, acetyloxy, propionyloxy, methyl-aminocarbonyloxy or ethylaminocarbonyloxy, especially hydroxy, acetyloxy or propionyloxy and in particular hydroxy. X is preferably linear C₃-C₆ alkyl, more preferably linear C₄-C₅ alkyl, and most preferably n-pentyl, which is in each case substituted as defined above. A particularly preferred radical X is 1,2,3,4,5-pentahydroxy-n-pentyl.

Normally, it is not necessary to soak the particulate in a solution containing the polyionic material. A concentrated amount of the polyionic material may be mixed with the substrate at room temperature. The polyionic material will then dry quickly onto the substrate.

It may be preferred to use a charged particulate substrate (such as a silicon containing substrate) or modify the surface of the particulate substrate to provide a charged substrate surface in order to enhance electrostatic bonding between the particulate substrate and the polyionic layer most adjacent to the particulate substrate.

When a polycationic polymer is applied to the particulate substrate (in lieu of a series of polyelectrolyte layers), the substrate may be a neutral substrate or a negatively charged substrate. Typically, the substrate of the particulate is modified to carry a negative charge prior to application of the polycationic polymer. For instance, where the substrate is a metal oxide, the charge of the metal oxide may be modified by titrating the oxide with dilute HC 1.

In a preferred embodiment, the polycationic polymer is applied as a single layer onto sand in order to minimize or suppress the generation of dust.

Where a series of polyelectrolytes are applied onto the substrate of the particulate, the particulate substrate may be a neutral particulate whose surface has been modified to carry a positive or negative charge prior to application of the first polyionic layer. For instance, where the substrate is a metal oxide, the charge of the metal oxide may be modified by titrating the oxide with dilute HC 1 or dilute sodium hydroxide, depending on the charge of the substrate which is desired. Thus, the charged substrate surface may be silica or silicon wafer. Surface modification may thus charge the surface of the particulate substrate such that the polyionic materials of the bottom layer of the first polyelectrolyte bilayer deposited onto the particulate substrate may more easily bind to the substrate. For instance, when the particulate substrate is sand, the surface of the sand may be silylated in order to attract the charge of polyionic material of the bottom layer of the first polyelectrolyte bilayer, i.e., the polyionic material adjacent to the particulate substrate. While it is more preferred to use a negative charge particulate substrate, the particulate substrate may bear a positive charge as well. For instance, when the particulate substrate is ceramic, the surface of the ceramic may be hydroxylated in order to counter the charge of the polyionic material of the polyelectrolyte bilayer adjacent to the charged ceramic.

Polyelectrolyte layers may be formed on the substrate of the particulate wherein polyionic material of like charges aggregate into discrete layers onto the substrate of the particulate. Thus, for example, a polyelectrolyte layer of positive charged polyionic material may be adjacent to a negative charged particulate substrate. A polyelectrolyte layer of negative charged polyionic material may be adjacent to the polyelectrolyte layer of positive charged polyionic material which is adjacent to the particulate substrate. A succession of polyelectrolyte layers each comprised of polyionic material having counterions to the polyionic material of its adjacent polyelectrolyte may be formed. The number of polyionic layers on the particulate substrate may be as high as 1,000 though usually is less than 40 and typically is between 2 and 20.

Thus, where the substrate is charged, the polyionic material of the polyelectrolyte layer (“the first polyelectrolyte layer”) immediately adjacent to the charged particulate substrate may have a charge counter to or opposite to that of the charge of the particulate substrate. The polyelectrolyte layer adjacent to the first polyelectrolyte layer (the “second polyelectrolyte layer”) may have a charge counter to or opposite to that of the charge of the polyionic material of the first polyelectrolyte layer. The charge of the polyionic layer of the polyelectrolyte layer adjacent to the second polyelectrolyte layer (“the third polyelectrolyte layer”) has a charge counter to or opposite to that of the charge of the polyionic material of the second polyelectrolyte layer, and so on.

In one embodiment, alternating polyelectrolyte layers composed of oppositely charged polyionic material are formed onto a charged particulate substrate by simultaneously depositing onto the substrate polyionic material of opposite charges. The polyionic materials self-assemble onto the charged particulate substrate much like oppositely charge magnets assemble with each other. Clusters of polyelectrolyte layers may be formed onto the particulate substrate or more discrete polyelectrolyte layers may form onto the particulate. In one embodiment, polyelectrolyte layers having oppositely charged polyionic material may interlock with each other. This arrangement may strengthen the coating forming onto the particulate.

Thus, polyionic materials of like charge assemble to form the first polyelectrolyte layer, wherein the charge of the polyionic materials is counter to the charge of the charged particulate substrate. The polyionic materials of like charge (opposite to the charge of the polyionic materials of the first polyelectrolyte layer) self-assemble to form the second polyelectrolyte layer, and so on.

The coating of one or more polyionic materials onto at least a portion of a charged particulate substrate has been found to markedly reduce the generation of dust as well as the release of dust upon agitation of the particulates. In particular, the amount of dust generated during pumping of particulates, the surface of which has not been coated with the polyionic material, is much greater than when the surface of the particulates are at least partially coated with the polyionic material. The presence of the polyionic layer(s) on the particulate may further reduce wear in pumping components and downhole tools, completion tubing and casing, and related hardware during operations.

Further, the presence of at least one polyionic material coated onto at least a portion of the surface of the particulate further minimizes the amount of dust generated from the particulate during transport of the particulate to the site of the well. Thus, during transport of the composites, the amount of dust generated from the particulates is dramatically reduced when at least a portion of the surface of the particulates are coated with one or more polyelectrolyte coatings than when the particulate is transported without the one or more polyelectrolyte coatings.

In a preferred embodiment, the polyionic material(s) is coated onto the substrate of the particulate at the site of the supplier and is then loaded onto transport vehicle(s). The composite may be transferred to more than one transport vehicle prior to delivery of the composite to the well site. In many instances, the composite is transferred multiple times within a supply chain prior to reaching the destination for its use.

While in a preferred embodiment, the entire surface of the particulate substrate is coated with polyelectrolyte layers, a portion of the surface of the particulate substrate may be coated as well. For instance, between from about 5 to about 100 percent of the surface of the particulate may be coated with the polyelectrolyte layer. In one embodiment, thereof less than or equal to 25 percent of the surface of the particulate may be coated with the polyelectrolyte layer. In another embodiment, less than or equal to 50 percent of the surface of the particulate may be coated with the polyelectrolyte layer. In another embodiment, less than or equal to 75 percent of the surface of the particulate may be coated with the polyelectrolyte layer. Further, all or a portion of a polyelectrolyte layer may be coated onto an adjacent oppositely charged polyelectrolyte layer.

In an embodiment, a polyelectrolyte layer may be coated onto the particulate in the form of multi-layers of oppositely charged like charged layers, each layer comprising counterions to the polyionic material of the polyelectrolyte layer which is adjacent to it, i.e., the polyionic material in a layer has charge opposite to the charge of the polyionic material as its adjacent layer(s). For purposes herein, the innermost layer to the particulate substrate, i.e., the layer immediately adjacent to the particulate substrate, shall be termed “the bottom layer”. The top layer is composed of polyionic material which is counterions to the polyionic material in the bottom layer. The bottom layer and the top layer constitute the polyelectrolyte bilayer. When more than two layers constitute the polyelectrolyte then each layer between the bottom layer and the top layer has a charge opposite to the layer to which it is adjacent.

In a preferred embodiment, the polyelectrolyte is a bi-layer and one or more polyelectrolyte bilayers are coated onto the particulate substrate. Each successive polyelectrolyte bilayer would be coated onto the first polyelectrolyte layer which is adjacent to the particulate substrate. Each additional polyelectrolyte bilayer consists of a bottom layer composed of a polyionic material and a top layer composed of a second polyionic material wherein the polyionic material in the bottom layers and top layers are oppositely charged.

Each polyelectrolyte multi-layer is laid onto the particulate substrate in succession such as in a self-assembly. The polyionic material in the bottom layer of each successive polyelectrolyte multi-layer has a charge which is opposite to the charge of the polyionic material in the top layer to which the successive polyelectrolyte multi-layer is adjacent.

For example, where three polyelectrolyte bilayers are coated onto the particulate substrate, the polyionic material in the bottom layer of the third polyelectrolyte bilayer is opposite to the charge of the polyionic material in the top layer of the second polyelectrolyte bilayer. In those instances where four polyelectrolyte bilayers are coated onto the particulate substrate, the charge of the polyionic material in the bottom polyionic layer of the fourth polyelectrolyte bilayer is opposite to the charge of the polyionic material of the top layer of the third polyelectrolyte bilayer and so on.

When the particulate substrate contains charged materials, it is necessary that the polyionic material of the bottom layer of the first polyelectrolyte bilayer coated onto the particulate substrate have a charge which is the opposite to the charge of the particulate substrate. The polyionic material of the top layer of the first polyelectrolyte bilayer is a counterion to the polyionic material of the bottom layer.

In some instances, the polyionic material of the bottom layer of the first polyelectrolyte bilayer may be positively charged. This would be the case, for example, where the particulate substrate carries a negative charge. The polyionic material of the top layer of the first polyelectrolyte bilayer would thus carry a negative charge. In such instances, it may be desirable to apply a second top layer, i.e., a second coating on top of the first top coating, such that the polyionic material of the second top coating is oppositely charged to the polyionic material of the first top coating. The second top layer is often desirable in order to seal or embed the negatively charged polyionic material of the first top coating within the matrix defined by the first top layer and the bottom layer of the first polyelectrolyte layer. Thus, for instance, where the particulate substrate is negatively charged, the bottom layer may be composed of positively charged polyionic material, the first top layer may be composed of negatively charged polyionic material and the second top layer would then be composed of positively charged polyionic material. The polyionic material of the bottom layer of a second polyelectrolyte bilayer, when present, would be of a negative charge.

It is often preferred to include nanoparticles in the polyionic solutions or in a fluid containing a polycationic polymer in order improve the performance of the deposited coating. Where a series of electrolyte layers are applied onto the substrate, the nanoparticles may be applied separately onto the substrate as alternating layers.

Since the nanoparticles are deposited along with the polyionic material or polycationic polymer onto the particulate substrate, it is desirable that they have a surface charge allowing them to be deposited with and to bind to the polyionic materials or polycationic polymer. Any type of nanoparticle that has a surface charge capable of binding with the depositing polyelectrolytes or polycationic polymer may be used in accord with the principles of the disclosure. In an aspect, the nanoparticle may be a clay (such as bentonite and smectite clays), double layered hydroxides, carbon nanotubes, graphene oxide, metal phosphates (such as zirconium and titanium phosphate), metal sulfides (such as WS₂, TaS₂, TiS₂), metal oxides (such as alumina, silica, magnesium oxide, or zinc oxide.) When present, the amount of nanoparticles included in a fluid solution containing the polyionic materials or polycationic polymer may be between from about 0.01 to about 15, preferably from about 0.05 to about 10, volume percent.

A composite of coated multi layers of polyelectrolyte onto the particulate substrate may be prepared by merely mixing two or more polyionic materials of opposite charges together in water. The aqueous mixture may then be deposited onto the particulate substrate and the composite, then dried. During the process, polyelectrolytes of opposite charges aggregate with each other. All or a portion of the surface of the particulate substrate may be covered by a polyelectrolyte layer having polyionic materials of a charge counter to the charge of the surface of the substrate. All or a portion of the surface of the polyelectrolyte layer adjacent to the particulate substrate may be covered by a second polyelectrolyte layer having a charge opposite to the charge of the polyelectrolyte adjacent to the particulate substrate. A succession of polyelectrolyte layers containing polyionic materials may be deposited onto the composite, each successive polyelectrolyte layer comprising polyionic materials having a charge opposite to the charge of the polyionic material of the polyelectrolyte layer adjacent to it.

Typically, the thickness of any polyelectrolyte layer will be less than about 50 nm, more typically from 5 nm to about 25 nm.

Normally, between from about 25 to 80 percent of the surface of the particulate substrate is coated with the polyelectrolyte layer and between from about 25 to 80 percent of each polyelectrolyte surface is coated with a successively applied polyelectrolyte coating. In an embodiment, it is desirable to coat the particulate substrate with an amount of polyelectrolyte layer such that all of the charges on the substrate will be countered with a charge from the oppositely charged polyionic material of the polyelectrolyte layer which is being applied. Likewise, the amount of a successive polyelectrolyte layer applied to an adjacent polyelectrolyte layer is the amount to counter the charges of the polyionic material to which the successive polyelectrolyte layer is being applied. As such, a 1:1 ratio of negative to positive charges is preferred.

The composite may further be prepared by a “layer-by-layer” methodology wherein each layer of a material is non-covalently bond to another layer of a different material.

For instance, the composite may be prepared by first contacting the particulate substrate with a first coating solution which contains the polyionic material of the bottom layer in order to non-covalently apply the innermost layer of the polyionic material onto the substrate. Typically, the amount of polyionic material in a coating solution as defined herein is between from about 0.02 to about 2 percent by weight, typically between from about 0.05 to about 1 percent by weight.

The particulate substrate having the innermost layer of the polyionic material attached to its surface is then contacted with a second coating solution containing the polyionic material comprising the top layer. The combination of the two layers of polyionic material forms a first polyelectrolyte bilayer on top of the particulate substrate; the first polyelectrolyte bilayer consisting of the bottom or innermost layer to the particulate substrate composed of a first polyionic material and a top layer of a polyionic material on top of the innermost layer; the second polyionic material having charges opposite of the charges of the first polyionic material. Additional layers may then be added to the substrate by further incorporating steps of contacting the substrate having the first polyelectrolyte bilayer with a third coating solution. The third coating solution contains a third polyionic material having a charge which is opposite to the charge of the second polyionic material. The third polyionic material may be the same as the first polyionic material or may be another polyionic material with the same charge as the first polyionic material. The third polyionic layer is thus formed on top of the first polyelectrolyte bilayer. A fourth polyionic coating may then be applied onto the third polyionic layer on the substrate in order to form a second polyelectrolyte bilayer composed of the third polyionic material and the fourth polyionic material. The fourth polyionic material has a charge opposite to the charge of the third polyionic material. The fourth polyionic material may be composed of the same material as the second polyionic material or may be another polyionic material with the same charge as the second polyionic material. The method may then be repeated in a like manner to form one or more additional polyelectrolyte bilayers.

One or more rinsing steps may be included during the process of making the composite, especially between steps of applying successive polyionic coating layers containing polyionic materials of unlike charges. The rinsing steps are carried out by contacting the particulate substrate with a rinsing solution. The rinsing solution may be an aqueous solution.

To effectively deposit the first layer of polyionic material, the surface of the particulate substrate may need to be charged making it capable of having electrostatic interactions with the polyionic material. For a proppant such as sand this step may be unnecessary. Sand is largely composed of silica (SiO₂), which has Si—O⁻ groups or Si—OH groups that readily hydrolyze, found along its surface. These Si—O⁻ groups allow for the first layer polyelectrolyte to bind. Other types of proppant may be neutrally charged at their surface and, hence, not capable forming a substantial electrostatic interaction to bind with the first polyelectrolyte layer. These proppants would have to undergo an initial step to place a charge on their surface. Any method that places a charge on the proppant surface allowing it to interact with the first polyelectrolyte layer is in accord with the principles of the present disclosure. For example, a proppant may need to undergo a silylation reaction placing Si—OH groups along its surface.

In preferred embodiments, the particulate coating that eliminates sharp edges on the particulate and functions as a lubricant to materially reduce mechanical erosion of the pumping components. Ideally, the coated particulate will have a low friction factor and high impact resistance that renders it resistant to chipping and shattering.

The layers of polyionic material bind to the surface of the particulate substrate and to one another substantially through electrostatic forces.

The composites defined herein are particularly effective in hydraulic fracturing as well as sand control fluids such as water, salt brine, slickwater such as slick water fracture treatments, low concentration polymer gel fluids (linear or crosslinked), foams (with gas) fluid, liquid gas such as liquid carbon dioxide fracture treatments for deeper proppant penetration, treatments for water sensitive zones, and treatments for gas storage wells.

The composites may be mixed and pumped during any desired portion of a well treatment such as hydraulic fracturing treatment or sand control treatment and may be mixed in any desired concentration with a carrier fluid. Suitable carrier fluids may be used in combination with gelling agents, crosslinking agents, gel breakers, surfactants, foaming agents, demulsifiers, buffers, clay stabilizers, acids, or mixtures thereof.

The use of the composites as a proppant advantageously provides for substantially improved overall system performance in stimulation procedure, such as hydraulic fracturing applications, as well as other well treating applications such as sand control. When used in hydraulic fracturing, the composites may be injected into a subterranean formation in conjunction with a hydraulic fracturing treatment or other treatment at pressures sufficiently high enough to cause the formation or enlargement of fractures.

Other well treating applications may be near wellbore in nature (affecting near wellbore regions) and may be directed toward improving wellbore productivity and/or controlling the production of fracture proppant or formation sand. Particular examples include gravel packing and “frac-packs.” Moreover, such particles may be employed alone as a fracture proppant/sand control particulate, or in mixtures in amounts and with types of fracture proppant/sand control materials, such as conventional fracture or sand control particulate.

In one exemplary embodiment, a gravel pack operation may be carried out on a wellbore that penetrates a subterranean formation to prevent or substantially reduce the production of formation particles into the wellbore from the formation during production of formation fluids. The subterranean formation may be completed so as to be in communication with the interior of the wellbore by any suitable method known in the art, for example by perforations in a cased wellbore, and/or by an open hole section. A screen assembly such as is known in the art may be placed or otherwise disposed within the wellbore so that at least a portion of the screen assembly is disposed adjacent the subterranean formation. A slurry including the composites and a carrier fluid may then be introduced into the wellbore and placed adjacent the subterranean formation by circulation or other suitable method so as to form a fluid-permeable pack in an annular area between the exterior of the screen and the interior of the wellbore that is capable of reducing or substantially preventing the passage of formation particles from the subterranean formation into the wellbore during production of fluids from the formation, while at the same time allowing passage of formation fluids from the subterranean formation through the screen into the wellbore.

As an alternative to use of a screen, the sand control method may use the composites in accordance with any method in which a pack of particulate material is formed within a wellbore that it is permeable to fluids produced from a wellbore, such as oil, gas, or water, but that substantially prevents or reduces production of formation materials, such as formation sand, from the formation into the wellbore. Such methods may or may not employ a gravel pack screen, may be introduced into a wellbore at pressures below, at or above the fracturing pressure of the formation, such as frac pack, and/or may be employed in conjunction with resins such as sand consolidation resins is so desired.

In addition to hydraulic fracturing and sand control, the composites defined herein may be used in the corrosion protection of equipment, erosion/abrasion resistance of surfaces, chemical reaction delay mechanisms and other areas where a protective coating is beneficial. The composite may also reduce wear in pumping components, such as pump heads, and downhole tools, completion tubing and casing, and related hardware during operations.

Examples

The following examples describe the preferred embodiments of the present disclosure. Unless indicated to the contrary, percentage in the Examples refers to weight percent. Other embodiments within the scope of the claims will be apparent to those skilled in the art from the consideration of the specification or practice of the disclosure set forth herein. It is intended that the specification, together with the examples, be considered exemplary only, with the scope and spirit of the disclosure being indicated by the claims.

Example 1

To form the coating, the sand was placed in an aqueous solution of 0.5% poly(allylamine hydrochloride) and 0.1% sodium chloride. The solution was decanted and the sand was rinsed. The sand was then placed in an aqueous solution of 0.08% poly(sodium styrene sulfonate). The solution was then decanted and the coated sand was rinsed.

Example 2

To form the coating, the sand was placed in an aqueous solution of 0.5% poly(allylamine hydrochloride) and 0.1% sodium chloride. The solution was decanted and the sand was rinsed. The sand was then placed in an aqueous solution of 0.08% poly(sodium-4-styrene sulfonate) and 0.2% bentonite nanoclay. The solution was then decanted and the treated sand was then placed into an aqueous solution of 0.5% poly(allylamine hydrochloride) and 0.1% sodium chloride. The solution was then decanted and the coated sand was rinsed to form a polyelectrolyte bilayer (first polyelectrolyte bilayer) on the sand particulate. A second polyelectrolyte bilayer was further coated onto particulates coated with the first polyelectrolyte bilayer by placing such coated particulates in an aqueous solution of 0.08% poly(sodium-4-styrene sulfonate) and 0.2% bentonite nanoclay. The solution was then decanted and the treated sand was then placed into an aqueous solution of 0.5% poly(allylamine hydrochloride) and 0.1% sodium chloride. This process was repeated in succession to obtain a substrate particulate containing 5 and 10 polyelectrolyte bilayers. The composites were then subjected to crush for 2 minutes at 5,550 psi. The results are graphically displayed in FIG. 1. FIG. 1 illustrates that crush resistance of the particulate substrate was dramatically improved by coating of the particulate substrate with one or more polyelectrolyte bilayers. FIG. 1 shows that one polyelectrolyte bilayer reduces fines production by almost one half and that ten layers of polyelectrolyte bilayers reduce fines to almost one third as compared to uncoated sand.

Example 3

A self-assembling coating having alternating layers of positively-charged [poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride)] and negatively-charged (sodium poly styrene sulfonate) on frac sand proppant was prepared from an aqueous-based system. Approximately 1 volume percent of each of the two water-soluble polymers were combined in distilled water. About 200 mL of the resulting aqueous solution was then mixed with 250 g of frac sand and shaken for two minutes. During this shaking the polymers self-assembled into positive and negative layers over the surface of the sand grains. When the aqueous solution was then drained from the sand the polymer coating remain adhered to individual grains. The water-polymer solution was shown to be reusable multiple times. As a control, 250 g of frac sand was also shaken with 200 mL of deionized water which did not contain any polymers but simply rinsed away dust particles. To mimic the rough handling responsible for producing dust during transport and pumping, multiple 15 gram samples of frac sand were tumbled in a roller drum for three days. Other samples of the sand were left unrolled for comparison. The ability of the polymer coating to reduce dust was tested by measuring the turbidity of water shaken with a known amount of frac sand. To test the dust release, a 15 g sample of sand was combined with 22 mL of deionized water, shaken one minute, and then allowed to sit undisturbed for one minute before measuring turbidity. The results are set forth in Table I.

TABLE I FAU Turbidity Sand Treatment Measurements Rolled, unrinsed sand 231 Rolled, rinsed, uncoated sand 88 Rolled, coated sand 31 Non-rolled, unrinsed sand 212 Non-rolled, rinsed, uncoated sand 66

As illustrated in Table I, unrinsed, uncoated, rolled sand had the highest turbidity measurement at 231 Formazin Attenuation Units (FAU). If the frac sand was rinsed once with deionized water before rolling, the turbidity measurement was reduced to 88 FAU. Frac sand coated with the self-assembling polymer layers had a turbidity of only 31 FAU after being rolled for three days. As illustrated in FIG. 2, this was an 87% reduction in dust released from the coated sand and a 65% reduction versus rinsed, uncoated sand. In comparison, non-rolled frac sand had a turbidity of 212 FAU if not rinsed and 66 FAU if rinsed once with deionized water. This corresponds to reduction in dust turbidity by the polymer-coated sand by 85% and 53% versus the non-rolled sands.

Example 4

About 1 lb of sand was sprayed with various amounts of an aqueous solution containing 0.5% of poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) and 0.4% sodium chloride, and then mixed for 20 minutes prior to drying. The resulting composite particles were then tested for the ability in producing less dust than non-coated particles. The ability of the polymeric coating to reduce dust was tested by measuring the turbidity of the samples before and after surface modification. The turbidity tests were performed accordingly to API RP 60, three data points were recorded for each sample than averaged. The results are tabulated in Table II. The benefits of surface treating the sand are clearly seen by the reduction in fines up to 90%.

TABLE II Modification Ratio (mL PDDA Average Description/Time moving sand solution/lb. Turbidity % dust in mixer to create fines sand) (FTU) Reduction 100 mesh Unimin sand, as received None 61 100 mesh Unimin sand/20 min 8.4 6 90 100 mesh Unimin sand/1 hour and 8.4 11 82 20 min 100 mesh Unimin sand/20 min 16.8 34 44 40/70 Unimin white sand None 48 — 40/70 Unimin white sand/20 min 9 18 63 40/70 Unimin white sand/1 hour 9 23 52 and 20 min

While the compositions and methods have been described in terms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that variations can be applied to the compositions and/or methods and in the steps or in the sequence of steps described herein without departing from the concept, spirit and scope of the disclosure. Moreover, it will be apparent that certain agents that are chemically related can be substituted for the agents described herein while the same or similar results would be achieved. All such similar substitutes and modifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to be within the scope and concept of the disclosure. It is intended that the specification be considered exemplary only, with the scope and spirit of the disclosure being indicated by the claims which follow. 

1. A composite comprising sand onto which is coated a polycationic polymer.
 2. The composite of claim 1, wherein the polycationic polymer is selected from the group consisting of: (a) a polyallylamine hydrochloride homo- or copolymer, salt or quaternized derivative, optionally comprising modifier units. (b) a polyethyleneimine, salt or quaternized derivative thereof; (c) a polyvinylamine homo- or copolymer, salt or quaternized derivative thereof optionally comprising modifier units; (d) a poly[vinylbenzyl-tri(C₁-C₄ alkyl)ammonium salt] or a quaternized derivative thereof; (e) a polymer resulting from a step-wise polymerization (quaternization) reaction between a dihalide and N,N,N′,N′-tetra(C₁-C₄ alkyl)-alkylenediamine; (f) a poly(vinylpyridine) or poly(vinylpyridinium salt) homo- or copolymer or a quaternized derivative thereof; (g) a polymer via ring-forming polymerization of N,N-diallyl-N,N-di(C1-C4 alkyl)ammonium halide, comprising units of the formula:

 wherein R₁ and R₂ are each independently C₁-C₄ alkyl, in particular methyl, and An⁻ is an anion, for example, a halide anion such as the chloride anion; (h) a homo- or copolymer of a quaternized di(C₁-C₄ alkyl)aminoethyl acrylate or methacrylate; (i) a polyaminoamide (PAMAM), a salt or quaternized derivative thereof; and (j) mixtures of any of (a) through (i).
 3. The composite of claim 2, wherein the polycationic polymer is a polyallylamine hydrochloride homo- or copolymer, salt or quaternized derivative of the formula:

wherein n is from about 300 to about 6,300.
 4. The composite of claim 2, wherein the comonomer of the copolymers of (a), (c), (f) or (h) are hydrophilic monomers selected from the group consisting of acrylamide, methacrylamide, N,N-dimethyl acrylamide, N-vinylpyrrolidone and mixtures thereof.
 5. The composite of claim 2, wherein the modifier units of (a) and (c) are of the formula:

wherein X is C₁-C₆ alkyl substituted with two or more of the same or different substituents selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, C₁-C₅ alkanoyloxy, and C₁-C₅ alkylaminocarbonyloxy.
 6. The composite of claim 5, wherein X is a linear C₃-C₆ alkyl or is 1,2,3,4,5-pentahydroxy-n-pentyl.
 7. The composite of claim 5, wherein X is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, acetyloxy, propionyloxy, methyl-aminocarbonyloxy and ethylaminocarbonyloxy and mixtures thereof.
 8. The composite of claim 2, wherein the polyallylamine hydrochloride homo- or copolymer is a diallyldialkyl ammonium salt.
 9. The composite of claim 8, wherein the polyallylamine hydrochloride homo- or copolymer is poly(diallyldialkyl amine hydrochloride).
 10. A method of reducing the amount of dust generated from sand comprising coating onto at least a portion of the surface of the sand a polycationic polymer.
 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the polycationic polymer is selected from the group consisting of: (a) a polyallylamine hydrochloride homo- or copolymer, salt or quaternized derivative, optionally comprising modifier units. (b) a polyethyleneimine, salt or quaternized derivative thereof; (c) a polyvinylamine homo- or copolymer, salt or quaternized derivative thereof optionally comprising modifier units; (d) a poly[vinylbenzyl-tri(C₁-C₄ alkyl)ammonium salt] or a quaternized derivative thereof; (e) a polymer resulting from a step-wise polymerization (quaternization) reaction between a dihalide and N,N,N′,N′-tetra(C₁-C₄ alkyl)-alkylenediamine; (f) a poly(vinylpyridine) or poly(vinylpyridinium salt) homo- or copolymer or a quaternized derivative thereof; (g) a polymer via ring-forming polymerization of N,N-diallyl-N,N-di(C1-C4 alkyl)ammonium halide, comprising units of the formula:

 wherein R₁ and R₂ are each independently C₁-C₄ alkyl, in particular methyl, and An⁻ is an anion, for example, a halide anion such as the chloride anion; (h) a homo- or copolymer of a quaternized di(C₁-C₄ alkyl)aminoethyl acrylate or methacrylate; (i) a polyaminoamide (PAMAM), a salt or quaternized derivative thereof; and (j) mixtures of any of (a) through (i).
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the polycationic polymer is a polyallylamine hydrochloride homo- or copolymer, salt or quaternized derivative of the formula:

wherein n is from about 300 to about 6,300.
 13. The method of claim 11, wherein the comonomer of the copolymers of (a), (c), (f) or (h) are hydrophilic monomers selected from the group consisting of acrylamide, methacrylamide, N,N-dimethyl acrylamide, N-vinylpyrrolidone and mixtures thereof.
 14. The method of claim 11, wherein the modifier units of (a) and (c) are of

the formula: wherein X is C₁-C₆ alkyl substituted with two or more of the same or different substituents selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, C₁-C₅ alkanoyloxy, and C₁-C₅ alkylaminocarbonyloxy.
 15. The method of claim 16, wherein X is a linear C₃-C₆ alkyl or is 1,2,3,4,5-pentahydroxy-n-pentyl.
 16. The method of claim 14, wherein X is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, acetyloxy, propionyloxy, methyl-aminocarbonyloxy and ethylaminocarbonyloxy and mixtures thereof.
 17. The method of claim 11, wherein the polyallylamine hydrochloride homo- or copolymer is a diallyldialkyl ammonium salt.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the polyallylamine hydrochloride homo- or copolymer is poly(diallyldialkyl amine hydrochloride).
 19. A method of suppressing the generation of dust from sand during the processing or transport of sand comprising coating onto at least a portion of the surface of the sand a polycationic polymer selected from the group consisting of: (a) a polyallylamine hydrochloride homo- or copolymer, salt or quaternized derivative, optionally comprising modifier units. (b) a polyethyleneimine, salt or quaternized derivative thereof; (c) a polyvinylamine homo- or copolymer, salt or quaternized derivative thereof optionally comprising modifier units; (d) a poly[vinylbenzyl-tri(C₁-C₄ alkyl)ammonium salt] or a quaternized derivative thereof; (e) a polymer resulting from a step-wise polymerization (quaternization) reaction between a dihalide and N,N,N′,N′-tetra(C₁-C₄ alkyl)-alkylenediamine; (f) a poly(vinylpyridine) or poly(vinylpyridinium salt) homo- or copolymer or a quaternized derivative thereof; (g) a polymer via ring-forming polymerization of N,N-diallyl-N,N-di(C1-C4 alkyl)ammonium halide, comprising units of the formula:

 wherein R₁ and R₂ are each independently C₁-C₄ alkyl, in particular methyl, and An⁻ is an anion, for example, a halide anion such as the chloride anion; (h) a homo- or copolymer of a quaternized di(C₁-C₄ alkyl)aminoethyl acrylate or methacrylate; (i) a polyaminoamide (PAMAM), a salt or quaternized derivative thereof; and (j) mixtures of any of (a) through (i).
 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the polycationic polymer is polyallylamine hydrochloride homo- or copolymer is a diallyldialkyl ammonium salt. 